Silicon is not only one of the basic elements of our planet, but also the basis for today’s information society. Without the development of silicon transistors, electronic technology as we know it today would have been unthinkable. Transistors like these are possible only thanks to the outstanding properties and stability of silicon and its oxide. The process of producing this valuable commodity, which is widely used above all in the semiconductor, solar, and polysilicon industries along with in R&D, is extremely complex and laborious.
- Silicon in detail
To obtain pure silicon, the oxygen contained in the silica sand (SiO2) has to be extracted with the help of carbon. Since silicon and oxygen are atomically very closely related, carbon and oxygen in silica sand bind to form carbon dioxide only at very high temperatures of around 1,800 °C. The carbon dioxide is discharged, leaving only the silicon. This process is extremely energy-intensive, requiring around 14 kWh per kilogram of raw silicon. Raw silicon extracted in this way still contains around 1% contamination. Industrial applications, however, require a degree of purity of at least 0.0000001% (1 ppb), which means that raw silicon is still unsuitable for computers or photovoltaic applications. For this reason, it undergoes further processing in which pure hydrochloric acid is used to convert the raw silicon to trichlorosilane, a liquid that has a boiling point of around 30 °C and is distilled in large systems more than 30 meters high. This distillate—i.e. the purified silicon—contains less than 1 ppb of contamination. The distillate is restored to solid silicon through the reaction of trichlorosilane with high-purity hydrogen. Here, a gas mixture is brought into contact with hot slim rods made from high-purity silicon onto which new silicon is deposited as polysilicon in a disordered arrangement of small crystals. The rods become increasingly thick, and, when they reach a diameter of around 180 mm, the process ends, and the rods break up into tiny pieces. With that, the material that keeps our high-tech civilization moving is ready.
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Compared to pure silicon, the compound semiconductor material silicon carbide offers unique properties that make it a better choice for certain applications. Its wider band gap ranging from 2.3 to 3.3. eV allows it to operate at higher temperatures and voltages while reducing switching losses by 90%. Especially in power conversion, SiC-based devices can achieve efficiencies up to 98.5% due to their ability to handle higher current densities. The semiconductor industry and R&D sector in particular benefit from these positive characteristics as high-quality silicon carbide wafers become increasingly available. |
- Advantages of silicon carbide
Silicon carbide (SiC) single crystal substrates are revolutionizing the electromobility sector and other high-power applications. Market analysts project that the increasing demand for SiC-based devices will result in a record CAGR increase within the upcoming years.
Due to their superior thermal conductivity and high electron mobility, SiC-based substrates are ideal for use in vehicles' main traction inverters, significantly improving efficiency over traditional silicon-based systems. Furthermore, a low dislocation density enhances device reliability and longevity, which is crucial for the increasing requirements of power electronics. They also contribute to reducing energy losses in electrical systems, further promoting sustainable energy practices.
Germanium was once the primary semiconductor material used in the electronics industry until it was eventually superseded by Silicon. Today, it is used in high-frequency technology (e.g. as an SiGe compound semiconductor) and detector technology (e.g. as an X-ray detector). Germanium wafers are sometimes used as substrates for solar cells made from Gallium Arsenide (GaAs). The lattice parameter of Germanium is very similar to that of Gallium Arsenide, which means that GaAs can grow epitaxially on Germanium single crystals. In the future, Germanium could become increasingly important again thanks to new Germanium–Carbon–Silicon technology.
Compound semiconductors in main groups III and IV offer one key advantage over Silicon: Their band gaps can be varied simply by changing the material composition, which means that their electrical properties can be selectively altered. For this reason, they are used primarily in technical applications such as optical instruments, LEDs and lasers. Some bonds also have a direct quantum transition, which makes them ideal for use in optical applications, too.